Summer 2002



Procedures for Humane Euthanasia

J.K. Shearer, DVM & Paul Nicoletti, DVM University of Florida College of Veterinary Medicine

The topic of euthanasia or putting animals down is unpleasant under any circumstances. It is, however, one of those tasks that veterinarians and others who work with livestock must be prepared to do. In many cases it is the only practical way to provide prompt relief of otherwise uncontrollable animal suffering. To that extent, it is a responsibility of all who own or work with livestock to have the proper equipment and knowledge to conduct this procedure with maximum efficiency and effectiveness.

"Euthanasia" is a Greek term meaning "good death". In this context, its objectives are met when death is induced which causes no pain or distress to an animal. To avoid pain and distress requires that the techniques which are used cause immediate loss of consciousness followed by cardiac and respiratory arrest that ultimately results in loss of brain function. Persons who perform this task must be technically proficient and have a basic understanding of the anatomical landmarks and equipment used for humane euthanasia of animals. The purpose of this article is to describe proper procedures for humane euthanasia of sick and/or debilitated animals in farm, ranch or other situations where veterinary supervision may not be available.

Livestock owners and others who derive all or a portion of their livelihood from animal agriculture share a moral obligation to ensure the welfare of animals. Therefore, when disease or injury conditions occur diminishing quality of life or creating pain and suffering that cannot be effectively relieved by medical means, euthanasia is indicated.

In most circumstances on the farm or ranch, gunshot is the only practical method of euthanasia. This procedure requires the selection of an appropriate firearm and bullet with sufficient velocity, energy and size to pass through the skull (enter the brain), and cause massive brain destruction. A .22 caliber long rifle bullet fired from either a pistol or rifle is sufficient for young animals. Hollow or soft point .22 caliber bullets increase brain tissue destruction, but may not penetrate the skull in adult animals. Euthanasia of bulls and some adult cows, horses, or elk by gunshot requires larger calibers such as a 9mm or .357 because of thickness of the skull.

When euthanasia is performed by gunshot, proper placement of the bullet is essential and best achieved by holding the firearm within a few inches of the intended target. The firearm should not be held or placed against the head. Ricochet may be prevented if the barrel of the firearm is positioned perpendicular to the skull.


In cattle, the point of entry of the projectile should be at the intersection of two imaginary lines, each drawn from the inside corner of the eye to the base of the opposite horn (or to a point slightly above the opposite ear in a cow without horns). As seen in the diagrams, this places the recommended point of entry in the center of the forehead somewhat above a line drawn between the eyes.


For hornless sheep, goats and rams the recommended sites for placement of the gun include the top of the head or slightly behind the poll.In horned sheep and rams the top of the head is not recommended because of the thickness of the skull in this region. Instead, the preferred position and orientation of gunshot are on a line starting from behind the poll and aimed in the direction of the animal’s muzzle as shown in the figure above.


For swine, there are two options: a frontal and a temporal site. Recommended placement of the gun for use of the frontal site is in the center of the forehead slightly above a line drawn between the eyes. Proper placement or aim of the euthanasia device is particularly important since the brain is relatively small and well protected by sinuses. An alternative site for gunshot is the temporal region.


Horses may be euthanized by gunshot as diagramed on the previous page. The site for entry of the projectile is described as a point slightly above the intersection of two diagonal lines each running from the inside corner of the eye to the base of the opposite ear. Note, that contrary to that described for cattle, the optimum site in the horse is slightly above the intersection of these two lines.

Unacceptable Methods of Euthanasia

The following is a partial list of methods considered as "unacceptable" for euthanasia of livestock:

  • Manually applied blunt trauma to the head such as a large hammer
  • Injection of any chemical substance not labeled for use as a euthanasia agent
  • Injection of air into a vein
  • Electrocution as with a 120 or 220 volt electrical cord

Under Florida law use of any of the above methods for euthanasia of livestock may be considered a violation of Chapter 828.12, which states that: "A person who intentionally commits an act to any animal which results in the cruel death, or excessive or repeated infliction of unnecessary pain or suffering, or causes the same to be done, is guilty of a felony of the third degree, punishable as provided in section 775.082 or by a fine of not more than $10,000 or both."

The objective of humane euthanasia is to induce death without causing pain or distress to the animal. When veterinary options are unavailable, putting animals down with a gun is the most merciful thing to do. Euthanasia is an unpleasant task, but knowing how to perform it competently not only prevents needless suffering, but avoids those even more unpleasant conditions where improper technique may increase pain and distress in animals requiring euthanasia.

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Get Rid of Those Freeloaders with Pregnancy Testing

Reproductive efficiency is the most important factor that influences profitability on a cow-calf operation. Each cow and bull in the breeding herd must earn their keep by producing calves. So how can you know that each cow is doing her job?

diagramPregnancy testing is a simple and easy method of monitoring breeding cattle performance. Most commercial cattle operations do not keep individual records on each cow so the only way you can ensure the productivity of each cow and make sure she is doing her job is through pregnancy testing. Once we know which cows are pregnant we can part out or eliminate the open cows and take better care of the cows that produce for us. This testing can be performed with simple equipment. Basically all you need is an artificial insemination (A.I.) plastic sleeve, some lubricant and some sort of restraining chute such as the one pictured here.

On most ranches, the largest expense is feeding the cow herd either through pastures or purchased supplements. If the cows are pregnancy tested, feed costs can be significantly reduced because dry and open cattle can be fed only for maintenance. Otherwise you will have to feed the whole herd at the highest nutritional level so that the most productive cows rebreed. Pregnancy testing allows you to sort not only for feeding but also allows you to cull those freeloader cows that won’t breed every year.

Many cattlemen cull everything that does not rebreed each year. However, since nutrition plays such a key role in the breeding percentage, somecattlemen have found it to be economical to give young cattle a second chance. This will only work if you can sort these cattle out and significantly reduce their carrying costs so that they are cheaper to keep than to raise a replacement. One word of caution, however: these cattle must be identified (brand, ear mark or tag) and pregnancy tested after the next breeding season to eliminate cattle that are genetically less fertile.

Most large animal veterinarians can routinely perform pregnancy testing. Because of the cost savings and added convenience, many producers have learned to test their own cattle. Novice pregnancy testers should work with a veterinarian or a proficient tester to more fully develop their skills to ensure accuracy. Novice testers may want to sort through their herd and only hire a vet to test the questionable and possibly open cattle. Many pregnancies are very obvious to even beginner pregnancy testers.

If you would like to learn the techniques for checking your own cattle, Extension Agents and Specialists of the University of Florida have developed a Beef Cattle Reproduction Management School to help producers better manage their breeding cattle herds. The course covers all aspects of managing a cattle herd to improve reproductive efficiency.Pregnancy testing techniques is just one aspect of the Reproductive Management School. Other topics of interest will be health management, dealing with calving problems, bull selection and breeding soundness evaluation, nutrition and breeding season management.

The Beef Reproduction School is considered "Florida’s Most Practical Extension Program for Beef Cattle Operations". Mike Milicevic, Lykes Brothers Ranch Manager, who has enrolled a number of employees over the years remarked, "The employees have turned out to be better hands by being more alert to nutrition, health and management of cattle.All ranchers should consider enrolling at least one employee in the Reproduction Management School."

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Annie’s Forage Notes

Ann Blount NFREC Forage Breeder

New Forage Varieties for the Southeast

Forage/livestock producers are always interested in learning about the characteristics of new forage varieties. Evidence of this is provided by the fact that each year Extension Forage Crop Specialists and County Agents get many questions about recent or anticipated forage variety releases.

There are many criteria that can be important in making good forage variety selection decisions including adaptation, yield, forage quality, pest resistance, seasonal distribution of growth, and grazing tolerance. The information presented in this article is obviously not comprehensive and should be viewed as an attempt to enhance awareness of new varieties and certain particularly prominent associated traits.

Alfalfa

‘Amerigraze 706’ is a dual-purpose alfalfa that is less winter dormant than ‘Alfagraze’. Amerigraze 706 is higher yielding than Alfagraze in the Coastal Plain. In Georgia, this variety is generally recommended for producers south of Interstate 20. Developed by J. Bouton and the University of Georgia. Marketed by Americas Alfalfa.

Arrowleaf Clover

‘Apache’ is a new arrowleaf clover with better resistance to bean yellow mosaic virus (BYMV) disease and that produces higher forage yields than ‘Yuchi’. It was developed from Yuchi, ‘Meechee’, and ‘Amclo’ germplasm through restricted recurrent phenotypic selection for tolerance to BYMV. Developed by G. Smith, F. Rouquette, Jr., I. Pemberton, and the Texas A & M University. Foundation seed of Apache will be maintained by the Texas Foundation Seed Service.

Bahiagrass

‘Sand Mountain’ is a new bahiagrass cultivar, similar in appearance to ‘Pensacola’ bahiagrass. It has improved cold tolerance compared to Pensacola and ‘Argentine’, but lower total season forage production than ‘Tifton 9’. It is best adapted for northern Alabama and Georgia, and other areas with similar climatic conditions. Developed by E. van Santen and Auburn University.

Bermudagrass

‘Ozarka’ is a new hybrid bermudagrass. Ozarka exhibits excellent cold tolerance and has yielded well in Oklahoma and the northern part of the bermudagrass belt. Ozarka’s superior cold tolerance, stand persistence, adaptation, production and quality when grown in southern Missouri and Kansas make it unique among released bermudagrass varieties. Developed by C. Taliaferro and W. Richardson. Three classes of planting stock (breeder, foundation, and certified) of Ozarka will be recognized. Breeder stock will be maintained by the OAES. Foundation stock will be produced by the Missouri Foundation Seed stocks in Missouri and the Oklahoma Foundation Seed Stocks (OFSS) in Oklahoma.

‘Midland 99’ is a hybrid bermudagrass that traces to crosses of bermudagrass accessions from Afghanistan, Ghana, and Oklahoma. It produces few seed and must be propagated vegetatively. Midland 99 is similar to ‘Midland’ and ‘Tifton 44’ in morphological traits and growth habit. It produces tall, upright growth with forage yields equal to or greater than Tifton 44, Midland, or ‘Greenfield’. It also produces better forage quality compared to those check varieties. It has a freeze tolerance equal to Greenfield and greater than Midland and Tifton 44. It is highly disease resistant, tolerates low pH soils, and exhibits excellent stand persistence. Three classes of planting stock (breeder, foundation, and certified) will be recognized. Midland 99 was developed by the Oklahoma, Arkansas, Kansas, and Missouri Agricultural Experiment Stations; the Samuel Roberts Noble Foundation; and the U.S. Department of Agriculture.

Eastern Gamagrass

The NRCS has released several new eastern gamagrass germplasms from several of the Plant Material Centers in the Southeastern U.S. These are:

  • Brooksville Plant Materials Center: ‘Martin’ and ‘St. Lucie’ germplasms
  • East Texas Plant Materials Center: ‘Medina’ germplasm
  • Knox City Plant Materials Center: ‘San Marcos’ germplasm

Though little acreage of this warm season perennial native grass exists in the Southeast at present, there seems to be increasing interest in using it for pasture, hay, and for wildlife purposes. It is widely adapted but is best suited to soils having good moisture availability. Forage yield and quality are good but establishment is difficult.

Oats

‘Horizon 314’ is a new full season, winter hardy, disease resistant winter oat variety adapted to the southeastern U.S. Developed by R. Barnett, J. Johnson, A. Blount, P. Pfahler, B. Cunfer, G. Buntin, the University of Florida and the University of Georgia. Marketed by Plantation Seeds.

Red Clover

‘Cinnamon Plus’ is a grazing-tolerant red clover that is an excellent forage yielder. Developed by J. Bouton and the University of Georgia. Marketed by FFR and available from Southern States Co-op.

‘RedlanGraze II’ is a grazing tolerant red clover that produces good forage yields. Developed by J. Bouton and the University of Georgia. Marketed by ABI.

‘Freedom!’ is a new red clover that has no pubescence (non-glandular trichomes or hairs), and was developed to permit faster drying and to reduce dustiness of hay. Freedom! is a medium red clover adapted to the central region of the United States. Developed by N. Taylor and the University of Kentucky.

Ryegrass

‘Fantastic’ ryegrass is an early maturing, crown rust resistant diploid annual ryegrass derived from ‘Fla 80’ X ‘FL Rust Resistant’. Developed by G. Prine, L. Dunavin, P. Mislevy, A. Blount, and the University of Florida. Marketed by Ampac.

‘King’ ryegrass is a medium maturing, high forage and seed yielding diploid with good crown rust resistance. Developed by G. Prine, L. Dunavin, P. Mislevy, A. Blount, and the University of Florida. Marketed by Lewis Seed Company.

‘Surrey II’ ryegrass is a late, high forage and seed yielding diploid with good crown rust resistance. Derived from ‘Surrey’. Developed by G. Prine, L. Dunavin, P. Mislevy, A. Blount, and the University of Florida. Marketed by CEBECO International Seeds.

‘Ed’ ryegrass is a late maturing, high forage and seed producing diploid with good crown rust and some gray leaf spot resistance. Developed by G. Prine, L. Dunavin, P. Mislevy, A. Blount, and the University of Florida. Marketed by Smith Seed Services.

‘Graze-N-Gro’ ryegrass is a late maturing, high forage and seed yielding diploid with good crown rust resistance. Developed by G. Prine, L. Dunavin, P. Mislevy, A. Blount, and the University of Florida. Marketed by American Seed Producers.

‘Prine’ ryegrass is a late maturing tetraploid ryegrass with good disease resistance. Developed by G. Prine, L. Dunavin, P. Mislevy, A. Blount, and the University of Florida. Marketed by East Texas Seed Company.

‘Brigadier’ ryegrass is an early maturing diploid ryegrass with good crown rust resistance. Developed by G. Prine, L. Dunavin, P. Mislevy, A. Blount, and the University of Florida. Marketed by East Texas Seed Company.

‘Florlina’ ryegrass is a late, cold tolerant, crown rust resistant diploid. It was co-developed by University of Florida and North Carolina State University. Developed by P. Muellar, the North Carolina State University, G. Prine, L. Dunavin, P. Mislevy, A. Blount, and the University of Florida. Marketed by Johnson Seed Company.

‘Jumbo’ ryegrass is a late maturing, high forage and seed yielding tetraploid ryegrass with good crown rust and gray leaf spot resistance traceable to Surrey. Developed by G. Prine, L. Dunavin, P. Mislevy, A. Blount, and the University of Florida. Marketed by Barenbrug USA.

Sericea Lespedeza

‘AU Grazer’ is the name of a new grazing-tolerant variety of sericea lespedeza that resulted through use of techniques similar to those used in developing grazing-tolerant alfalfa varieties. It can be used for hay, but its main attribute is that it should increase the feasibility of using sericea as a pasture species. It was developed by J. Mosjidis and Auburn University and is being marketed by Sims Seed Company.

Soybean, Forage

‘Hinson’ is a Group VIII, non-GMO, forage soybean for the southeastern U.S. It produces more tonnage, from trials conducted in Florida, than 'Tyrone'. Hinson has good seed yield, excellent seed quality and resistance to several root-knot nematode species. It is ideal for staggered summer plantings because of the juvenile trait, which allows it to remain in a vegetative state longer than conventional soybeans. This variety also works well in wildlife food plots. Developed by A. Blount, K. Hinson, R. Barnett and R. Kinloch and the University of Florida. Currently marketed through the Florida Foundation Seed Producers, Inc.

Wildrye

‘Lavaca’ Canada Wildrye was released for South Texas by the Kika de la Garza Plant Materials Center. Canada wildrye is a native, cool season, perennial grass, and Lavaca is a selected release that can be used as component in native seed mixtures for range restoration. It is also suitable for cool-season pastures, especially in wooded riparian areas. Lavaca was selected from a collection of 60 accessions for its vigorous vegetative growth, total biomass, persistence, drought resistance, heat tolerance, and good seed production. Plant material was originally collected from a stand near Hallettsville, Lavaca County, Texas. Lavaca wildrye is intended for use in south Texas. Foundation seed is available from the Kika de la Garza Plant Materials Center, Kingsville, Texas.


West Nile Virus and Encephalitus Vaccination for Horses

Already this year 7 horses have been diagnosed with West Nile Virus and 8 horses have been diagnosed with Eastern Equine Encephalitis. Mosquito season has not really even cranked up yet this year, and already these diseases are on the rise. Horses in Florida need to be vaccinated for both of these diseases at least twice annually to reduce the risk of becoming infected. Some of these horses had been vaccinated previously, but the owners had neglected to keep their vaccinations current. Once infected most horses will die or have to be put to sleep. Don’t let forgetfulness kill your horses. If you have not vaccinated for EEE or WNV this year, get them vaccinated now before the mosquito season is in full swing. Last year over 20 horses in Holmes, Jackson and Washington Counties died as a result of these viruses.

Recommended Vaccination Schedule for Florida Horses:

Minimum Florida Horse Vaccinations
Eastern & Western Encephalitis 3 times per year
West Nile Virus 2 times per year
Rabbies Once annually
Optional Vaccinces for Show Horses
Rhinopneumontis 2-4 times per year
Influenza 2-4 times per year
Strangles 2-4 times per year
Potomic Horse Fever Once annually
A booster shot must be given if horses have never been vaccinated to provide immunity.

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CIDR: A New Product for Heat Synchronization of Cattle Breeding

Source:University of Illinois via Ag Online

A valuable tool has been added to the reproductive toolboxes of beef cattle and dairy producers based, in part, on testing done in the University of Illinois Department of Animal Sciences. The product, Controlled Internal Releasing Device, known as CIDR, helps advance the first pubertal estrus in beef heifers, advances the first postpartum estrus in suckled beef cows, and synchronizes estrus in replacement beef and dairy heifers and suckled cows.

"This is the first new procedure in cattle reproduction approved in 20 years," said Darrel J. Kesler, U of I professor of reproductive physiology who led pivotal studies on the product in 1997. "This procedure uses progesterone and progesterone-based procedures that have been demonstrated to be extremely valuable for the synchronization of estrus."

The CIDR is a "T" shaped device -- referred to as an insert by the Food and Drug Administration, which recently approved its use. The wings of the device collapse to form a rod that can be inserted into the animal's vagina with a releasing device. It is left in place for seven days. An injection of PGF 2a is administered on day six and the insert is removed on day seven. "In layman's terms, progesterone helps to regulate estrus, making cows ready for breeding at more predictable times," said Kesler. Kesler said tests indicated that about 61 percent of the treated beef heifers conceived to artificial insemination within the first three days of the breeding season and results for beef cows and dairy heifers were similar. The progesterone in the device is a natural compound and is not absorbed by any animal tissue sold for human consumption, eliminating any residue concerns.

Originally developed in New Zealand, the product should go on the market within a month in the United States, marketed by Pharmacia Animal Health, likely through artificial insemination dealers. Some of the research to get FDA approval was done at the University of Florida by Dr. Joel Yelich at Bar L Ranch, Marianna.

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Florida Market Bulletin: Free Classified Advertising for Agriculture

Florida Market Bulletin

The Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services mails out the Florida Market Bulletin monthly. The Market Bulletin provides agricultural producers free classified advertising.Subscriptions and classified advertisements are a free service provided by the Department of Agriculture. If you are looking for equipment, hay or livestock, you will find classified advertisements from producers all over the state. They have listings of agricultural machinery, livestock, farmland, employment, hay and other harvested products, and miscellaneous items utilized by agricultural producers. Ads are limited to 20 words plus contact information. The Market Bulletin does not publish commercial ads. All items offered for sale must have been produced or used on the seller’s property.Only Florida residents are eligible to advertise.

You can view the current issue of the Florida Market Bulletin online at http://www.florida-agriculture.com/fmb/. You can also subscribe to receive the Market Bulletin monthly in the mail or send in an advertisement online at the address above. If you do not have Internet access, you can call 850-487-8000 to subscribe or advertise. This is a great way to sell or locate livestock, hay or equipment for sale. The only hitch with advertising is that ad requests must be resubmitted each month that the ad runs. This is a great service that North Florida producers are not taking full advantage of.

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